What do emerging readers struggle with that includes confusion between letters like 'b' and 'd'?

The correct answer, orthographic representations, reflects the challenges that emerging readers face with letter recognition and visual processing. Orthographic representation refers to the understanding and recognition of the written symbols (letters and words) and how these symbols represent specific sounds in language. Emerging readers, especially those with dyslexia, often mix up letters such as 'b' and 'd' due to their similar shapes, which can hinder their ability to decode words consistently.

This struggle with distinguishing letters is closely tied to orthographic processing, where readers learn to identify the correct orientation and configuration of letters in written text. Developing strong orthographic representations is crucial for reading fluency and comprehension, as it allows readers to recognize words quickly and accurately without having to sound out each letter.

Phonetic awareness, which involves the understanding of the relationships between sounds and letters, is related but does not specifically address the visual confusion between letters. Vocabulary pertain to the knowledge of word meanings and does not directly connect to the visual aspect of reading. Fluency involves the ability to read smoothly and with expression, which largely depends on the underlying skill of recognizing letters and words efficiently, but does not directly address the confusion between specific letter shapes.